Pcb Board

Combinational Circuit Design

2009-05-29T01:24:00.000-07:00

Combinational Circuit Logic circuits for digital systems may be combinational or sequential. A combinational circuit consists of logic gates whose outputs at any time are determined by combining the values of the applied inputs using logic operations. A combinational circuit performs an operation that can be specified logically by a set of Boolean expression. In addition to using logic gates, sequential circuits employ elements that store bit values. Sequential circuit outputs are a function of inputs and the bit value in storage elements. These values, in turn, are a function of previously applied inputs and stored values. As a consequence, the outputs of a sequential circuit depend not only on the presently applied values of the inputs, but also on pas inputs, and the behavior of the circuit must be specified by a sequence in time of inputs and internal stored bit values. A combinational circuit consists of input variables, output variables, logic gates and interconnections. The interconnected logic gates accept signals from the inputs and generate signals at the output. The n input variables come from the environment of the circuit, and the m output variables are available for use by the environment. Each input and output variable exists physically as a binary signal that represents logic 1 or logic 0.

For n input variables, there are 2^n possible binary input combinations. For each binary combination of the input variables, there is one possible binary value on each output. Thus, a combinational circuit can be specified by a truth table that lists the output values for each combination of the input variables. A combinational circuit can also be described by m Boolean function, one for each output variable. Each such function is expressed as function of the n input variables.

Combinational Circuit Design

The design of combinational circuit starts from a specification of the problem and culminates in a logic diagram or set of Boolean equations from which the logic diagram can be obtained. The procedure involves the following steps:

1. From the specifications of the circuit, determine the required number of inputs and outputs, and assign a letter symbol to each.

2. Derive the truth table that defines the required relation ship between inputs and outputs.

3. Obtain the simplified Boolean functions of each outputs as function of the input variables.

4. Draw the logic diagram.

5. Verify the correctness of the design.

I am a freelance content writer and currently attached with http://www.articles-heaven.com/ I am running http://www.superdiscountshop.com/ and http://www.pakreseller.com/

Sequential Circuit Design

2009-04-24T23:48:00.000-07:00

Sequential Circuit
The digital circuits considered thus far have been combinational. Although every digital system is likely to include a combinational circuit, most systems encountered in practice also include storage elements, requiring that the systems be described as sequential circuits.

A combinational circuit and storage elements are interconnected to form a sequential circuit. The storage elements are circuits that are capable of storing binary information. The binary information stored in these elements at any given time defines the state of the sequential circuit at that time. The sequential circuit receives binary information from its environment via inputs. These inputs together with the present state of the storage elements, determine the binary value of the outputs. They also determine the values used to specify the next state of the storage elements. The next state of the storage elements is also a function of the inputs and present state. Thus, a sequential circuit is specified by a time sequence of inputs, internal states, and outputs.

Sequential Circuit Design
The design of clocked sequential circuits starts from a set of specification and culminates in a logic diagram or a list of Boolean functions from which the logic diagram can be obtained. In contrast to a combinational circuit, which is fully specified by a truth table, a sequential circuit requires a state table for its specification. Thus, the first step in the design of a sequential circuit is to obtain a state table or an equivalent representation such as state diagram.

A synchronous sequential circuit is made up of flip-flops and combinational gates. The design of the circuit consists of choosing the flip-flops and finding a combinational circuit structure which, together with the flip flops, produces a circuit that fulfills the stated specifications. The number of flip-flops is determined from the number of states in the circuit; n flip-flops can represent up to 2^n binary states. The combinational circuit is derived from the state table by evaluating the flip-flop input equations and output equations. In fact, once the type and number of flip-flops are determined, the design process involves a transformation from a sequential circuit problem into a combinational circuit problem. In this way, the techniques of combinational circuit design can be applied.

Design Procedure
This following is a procedure for the design of sequential circuits
1. Obtain either the state diagram or the state table from the statement of the problem.
2. If only a state diagram is available from step 1, obtain the state table.
3. Assign binary codes to the states.
4. Derive the flip-flops input equations from the next-state entries in the encoded state table.
5. Derive output equations from the output entries in the state table.
6. Simplify the flip-flops input equations and output equation.
7. Draw the logic diagram with D flip-flops and combinational gates, as specified by the flip-flop input equation and output equation.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Muhammad_Wasiq_Ansari

Reverse-Engineering Your Future

2009-04-14T22:43:00.000-07:00

There are many ways of creating new methods and strategies for doing things well. One form of innovation is to take a powerful strategy from one area and apply it usefully in a completely different one. In that spirit, I have borrowed a concept from the field of engineering and will present you with several ways in which it can be used to plan and create a better future.

That concept is ‘reverse engineering’. Normally when a person engineers something, they start with a purpose, a need or a problem and create something which embodies that purpose, satisfies that need or solves the problem.

Reverse engineering is essentially the opposite process. You start out with the finished product and go backwards, retracing the creative method to find out how it works.

This is what happens when a company like Sony produces a new gadget. A competitor buys one and takes a screwdriver to it, taking it apart in order to find out the principles behind how it works. Then they can produce their own version built on similar principles.

Suppose you were to apply this process to one of your current goals. Assume the goal is complete at some point in the future and reverse engineer the pathway to that successful accomplishment. Here are three ways of doing the ‘reverse engineering’ process.

1) The Magic Pill Scenario

I’m not sure where this method originates, though I often use it with coaching clients to get past a problem.

It involves a simple question and some imagination.

The question is this:

"If I were to give you a magic pill that meant you would wake up tomorrow with the problem completely solved, what would have changed?"

This enables them to start thinking about the problem as solvable. This also presupposes that there is a solution and that it’s possible for them to get past their current obstacle.

They are then free to discover for themselves what changes they need to make. All we have to do after that is agree on how to make those changes, set up resources and a timeframe.

Then they are completely free to move into action, knowing they are going in the right direction in an acceptable timeframe.

2) Timeline method

Imagine that your future is stretched out in front of you on a line, where days, weeks, months and years are arranged in order. One day follows another. This is a representation of your timeline - your inner sense of time. Your mind uses your timeline to plan and schedule. It’s a bit like a ‘mental diary’ or planner.

First, assume that at some point in time, you will reach your goal.

Then move forward along that timeline until you get to a point in your future where the goal is accomplished.

At this point, check that it happens in a way that you’re happy with. If it’s not okay, change it until you’re completely happy with it.

Now turn around and look back along the timeline, noticing all of the events that took place before your goal - those actions which allowed you to accomplish your goal.

Be aware of what you did each step of the way. Your mind will fill in the details as you go.

Now you know how you will get there and have a complete plan.

To make this even better, look at your new plan. Are there any distractions or unnecessary steps involved? Use your awareness of this to streamline the plan further until it is at its best.

Write down the plan and move in to action!

(For more about this method, refer to my NLP Primer on timelines)

3) The Chunkwise Method

Henry Ford once said: "Nothing is particularly hard if you divide it into small jobs". He went on to prove his statement by working out all of the jobs involved in building a car and putting that knowledge to practical use. The result was the world’s first mass-produced car.

You can apply this process by breaking your goal down into a number of pieces, then subdividing those into smaller tasks. Then all you need to do to make that knowledge into a plan is to apply the three ‘power questions’.

I’ve detailed the full process below, using "creating a new ebook" as an example.

1 - Identify your goal
Example: creating a new ebook

2 - What are the major pieces needed or stages involved? (3-5 pieces)
Example: Research, Design, Writing the detailed text.

3 - what are the major pieces of each of those?
Example: Research - (Market research, Topic research)

4 - Apply three power questions to each piece :
Example: Topic research segment

A - How do you accomplish this piece?
Search internet, read relevant books, conduct studies in real world
B - How long will it take?
3 months
C - What order does this come in the bigger scheme?
After market research and before the design phase

Of course, you would go through all of the steps for each piece of every stage until you had a complete and comprehensive plan. Then you can decide if the time and effort involved are worth it. If not, you can work at ways of minimising the time taken in certain steps or do other steps in a more enjoyable or appealing way.

As a consequence of using the metaphor of reverse engineering, several strengths are revealed.

The process presupposes that the aim is possible and achievable, so we instantly bypass any doubts that could have stalled creative thoughts about a solution. If it’s really not possible, you’ll find out in the process.

You get to decide whether it’s worth it, which you can only assess fully if you know the full process involved in getting there. After all, it’s important to enjoy the journey as much as the final outcome.

You need to envision the outcome fully before you start, so you can adjust it and decide if you really want it that way. Needless to say, this saves a lot of time and effort.

Also bear in mind that none of these processes need to take very long - it’s all about finding a clear and acceptable path to your goal.

I hope these strategies are helpful in allowing you to decide on the great things you want in your future - and making them happen!

Philip Callaghan is an NLP Trainer and Coach who has been working full time with private clients for several years. He is a Licensed Master Practitioner and Trainer of Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) and a member of the International Association of Coaches.

Visit Phil's website http://www.resourcefulchange.co.uk for further articles.

Learn NLP with Phil at http://www.bronze-dragon.com/index.shtml

Reverse-Engineering Your Future

2009-01-31T01:23:00.000-08:00

Reverse engineering is essentially the opposite process. You start out with the finished product and go backwards, retracing the creative method to find out how it works.

1) The Magic Pill Scenario

I’m not sure where this method originates, though I often use it with coaching clients to get past a problem.

It involves a simple question and some imagination.

The question is this:

"If I were to give you a magic pill that meant you would wake up tomorrow with the problem completely solved, what would have changed?"

This enables them to start thinking about the problem as solvable. This also presupposes that there is a solution and that it’s possible for them to get past their current obstacle.

They are then free to discover for themselves what changes they need to make. All we have to do after that is agree on how to make those changes, set up resources and a timeframe.

Then they are completely free to move into action, knowing they are going in the right direction in an acceptable timeframe.

2) Timeline method

First, assume that at some point in time, you will reach your goal.

Then move forward along that timeline until you get to a point in your future where the goal is accomplished.

At this point, check that it happens in a way that you’re happy with. If it’s not okay, change it until you’re completely happy with it.

Now turn around and look back along the timeline, noticing all of the events that took place before your goal - those actions which allowed you to accomplish your goal.

Be aware of what you did each step of the way. Your mind will fill in the details as you go.

Now you know how you will get there and have a complete plan.

To make this even better, look at your new plan. Are there any distractions or unnecessary steps involved? Use your awareness of this to streamline the plan further until it is at its best.

Write down the plan and move in to action!

(For more about this method, refer to my NLP Primer on timelines)

3) The Chunkwise Method

I’ve detailed the full process below, using "creating a new ebook" as an example.

1 - Identify your goal
Example: creating a new ebook

2 - What are the major pieces needed or stages involved? (3-5 pieces)
Example: Research, Design, Writing the detailed text.

3 - what are the major pieces of each of those?
Example: Research - (Market research, Topic research)

4 - Apply three power questions to each piece :
Example: Topic research segment

A - How do you accomplish this piece?
Search internet, read relevant books, conduct studies in real world
B - How long will it take?
3 months
C - What order does this come in the bigger scheme?
After market research and before the design phase

As a consequence of using the metaphor of reverse engineering, several strengths are revealed.

You need to envision the outcome fully before you start, so you can adjust it and decide if you really want it that way. Needless to say, this saves a lot of time and effort.

Also bear in mind that none of these processes need to take very long - it’s all about finding a clear and acceptable path to your goal.

I hope these strategies are helpful in allowing you to decide on the great things you want in your future - and making them happen!

Visit Phil's website http://www.resourcefulchange.co.uk for further articles.

Learn NLP with Phil at http://www.bronze-dragon.com/index.shtml

Laser Marking of ECC 200 2D Matrix Codes on Printed Circuit Boards

2009-01-27T01:36:00.000-08:00

Manufacturers of electronic devices, from home audio equipment to automotive keyless entry systems, are increasingly seeking a reliable, cost effective method for uniquely identifying and tracking products through the manufacturing cycle, sales distribution and after-sale warranty verification. An autonomous, automated tracking system requires that a permanent, machine-readable code be applied to an internal printed circuit board to uniquely identify each product. The code must be durable enough to survive manufacturing processes including wave solder and board cleaning, must not affect circuit performance, and must store information in the small space available on real-estate conscious printed circuit boards.

The 2D matrix code provides a means to store alphanumeric character strings in very small areas of the printed circuit board. Laser marking technology provides a method for permanently applying 2D matrix codes to most board substrates. The high-resolution and high-accuracy of beam-steered laser marking systems provides the means to create well defined, high reliability codes regardless of code size. Laser marking also provides the user with a computer-controlled marking process for easy implementation into automated product tracking systems.

ECC 200 2D Matrix Codes

Two-dimensional symbologies encode information in the form of a checkerboard pattern of on/off cells. Specific advantages of Data Matrix codes over conventional 1D barcodes include:

· Encode information digitally, as opposed to the analog encoding of data in conventional barcodes.

· Can accommodate low-contrast printing directly on parts without requiring a label

· Offer very high information density - the highest among other common 2D codes, which means that you can place a lot of information in a very small area.

· They are scaleable, which means that you can print them and read them in various levels of magnification - only limited by the resolution of the available printing and imaging techniques.

· Due to the high information density inherent to Data Matrix codes, they also offer built-in error-correction techniques which allow fully recovering the message encoded in a Data Matrix symbol even if the mark is damaged and missing as much as 20% of the symbol.

· They are read by video cameras as opposed to a scanned laser beam used for reading conventional barcodes, which means that they can be read in any orientation.

ECC 200 Data Matrix is the most popular 2-D symbology with extensive use in automotive, aerospace, electronics, semiconductor, medical devices and other manufacturing unit-level traceability applications. Data Matrix codes are typically not replacing conventional linear barcodes, but are being used where traditional barcodes were too large, did not provide sufficient storage capacity, or were unreadable.

Data Matrix Code Structure

The 2D matrix codes appear as a "checkerboard" with the individual squares (cells) in either on on (white) or off (black) state. The code consists of four distinct elements.

· The Finder "L" Pattern consists of a solid row of cells along the left edge and bottom of the code that orients the reader to the layout of the 2D code.

· The Clock Track is a sequence of on/off cells along the right edge and top of the code that designates the row/column count to the reader.

· The Data Region is the pattern of black and white cells within the L pattern and the clock tracks that contain the alphanumeric content of the code.

· The Quiet Zone around the code must be free of any features that may be visible to the reader. The quiet zone should be at least two rows/columns wide for codes constructed of square cells. The quiet zone should be at least four rows/columns wide for codes constructed of circular cells (dots).

ECC 200 Data Matrix codes can store up to 3,116 numeric, 2,335 alphanumeric characters or 1,555 bytes of binary information in a 144 column by 144 row array. More realistic symbol dimensions for printed circuit boards can still contain a significant amount of information.

Laser Marking System

The laser marking system consists of the laser source, the beam-shaping optics, and the beam-steering system.

The laser is a light amplifier generating a bright, collimated beam of light at a specific wavelength. For FR4 and solder mask applications, most users choose the air-cooled CO2 laser operating at the 10,640nm far-infrared wavelength. This laser offers several performance and cost advantages, and produces excellent marking results.

The laser beam is projected through two beam-deflecting mirrors mounted to high-speed, high-accuracy galvanometers. As the mirrors are rotated under direction of the system computer, the laser beam scans across the target marking surface to "draw" the desired marking image.

After the laser beam is deflected from the beam-steering mirrors, it is focused to the smallest spot possible by flat-field focusing optics. The flat-field focusing assembly is a multi-element optical device designed to maintain the focal plane of the focused laser beam on a relatively flat plane throughout the marking field. The focused laser light significantly increases the power density and associated marking power.

The function of the laser optical train is to focus the laser beam to a small spot and to scan the laser beam over the target surface with high speed and accuracy. With the CO2 laser configuration, the focused spot diameter and associated marking line width is about 0.0035" to 0.004". Man-readable text characters can be as small as 0.040" and 2D matrix codes can be constructed from individual features as small as a single 0.004" dot.

PCB Marking

To mark printed circuit boards, the heat generated by the laser beam thermally alters the surface of the board to create a contrasting, legible mark. The process does not require labels, stencils, punches or any other auxiliary hardware or consumable.

For printed circuit board applications, several different variations of this technique can be used for different board/coating materials and background conditions.

· Solder mask or other Conformal Coatings on FR4 Boards -

The laser beam can alter the texture of the coating, giving it a lighter contrasting appearance, or can completely remove the coating to expose the underlying substrate or copper ground plane.

· Uncoated FR4 -

The laser beam alters the texture of the surface of the FR4 producing a near white appearance.

· Silk-screened Ink Block -

For users who already silkscreen component identification or other fixed information on the boards, a silk-screened white ink block can function as a background to the 2D matrix code to optimize readability. This technique is particularly helpful when…

o The background color of the board is similar to the color of the laser mark.

o Underlying circuitry would obscure the marking image to code readers.

o The board material is not suitable for laser marking, such as ceramic substrates.

2D Matrix Code Verification

Verification of the legibility and content of the 2D matrix codes is an important step in the overall quality program. After marking of each circuit, the reader verifies the integrity of the mark before indexing the laser marking head to the next marking location. The reader retrieves the alphanumeric text string from the 2D code and compares it with the text string that was to be marked.

The reader also evaluates the legibility of the code based on a variety of parameters including foreground/background contrast, geometric accuracy (skew, squareness, etc.) and the dimensional accuracy of both the marked and unmarked cells. The 2D matrix codes are then categorized as passed (green), warned (yellow) or failed (red). For overall production efficiency, the laser system can be programmed to verify only a select few 2D codes on a panel, then to automatically switch to verifying every code if the code legibility falls below a specified level.

Today's readers do an excellent job reading lower contrast 2D codes. If the laser marking system is installed on an assembly line with older 2D matrix readers downstream from the laser marker, the verification reader can be configured to evaluate the codes based on the performance of the older downstream readers to assure consistent performance throughout the assembly process.

Marking Performance

The typical printed circuit board marker is a fully automated, SMEMA-compliant, through-conveyor laser marking system. The overall productivity of the laser marker is comprised of several steps that make up the marking cycle. The steps required to mark one multi-array panel are…

1. Transport and positioning of the panel in the marking area.

2. Fiducial location detection (optional)

3. Marking of the first circuit in the array

4. Verification of the marked 2D matrix code (optional)

5. Motion of the laser marking head to the next circuit in the array.

6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the remaining circuits in the array.

7. Transport of the panel out of the laser marking system (synonymous with bringing the next panel in)

Cost of Operation

Cost of operation is much less than $1.00 per hour. Typical utilities requirements are 110VAC, 1-phase, 12A. A compressed air source is required for the pneumatics. Total utilities costs at maximum laser power (the laser should actually operate at less then 80% rated power) are $0.12 per hour. The primary consumable item is the CO2 laser tube that must be replaced every 3 to 5 years at a cost of typically $1,000.00 to $1,500.00. Assuming a 40-hour workweek and tube life of 3 years, the tube replacement cost would equate to $0.18 per hour for a total operating cost of $0.30 per hour under worst case conditions. Actual operating costs will be lower due to less than maximum electrical usage and longer tube life.

For typical pcb laser marking applications, the cost for marking is less than $0.0003 per circuit.

Summary

The electronics industry has been searching for a cost and technically effective means of applying machine-readable codes to printed circuit boards since the 1980's. Early attempts included laser marking linear barcodes on the board edge, a daunting challenge for reader alignment, and marking linear barcodes next to circuit traces, also a challenge for barcode readers. Barcode content was limited to a few characters due to limited space and the barcodes character-per-inch capacity.

The development of the 2D matrix code combined with the resolution, permanence and speed of beam-steered laser marking technology now offers manufacturers a reliable, cost-effective, flexible and verifiable means to uniquely identify every product through production, distribution and after-sale.

Visit Laser Marking or call (407) 679-9716

Richard Stevenson is the Sales Director for Control Micro Systems, Inc. a manufacturer of beam-steered laser marking systems. He has held numerous engineering, sales and marketing positions since joining the laser industry in 1976. He has published and presented numerous technical papers and articles on laser marking in trade publications and conferences and has represented the laser marking industry on the Laser Systems Product Group of the Association of Manufacturing Technology.

How To Clean Gel Flux Residue From a Circuit Board After Hand Soldering a Quad Flat Pack

2009-01-14T21:59:00.000-08:00

This article describes how to clean gel flux residue from a circuit board after hand soldering a quad flat pack component. The process involves full immersion cleaning, which means fully submersing the board into solvent while brushing in order to dislodge and dissolve as much of the flux residue as possible.

Start by putting on some "powder free latex gloves" to protect your hands. Also make sure that you are wearing safety glasses and that your work area is reasonably well ventilated.

Place the board on the bench. No solvents are used at this stage. I call this step "dry wiping". Get a small brush, such as a horse hair or small parts cleaning brush and simply run the brush along each edge to remove the bulk of the flux residue.

Wipe the brush on a tissue to get the flux residue off of the brush. The objective is just to remove the bulk of the flux residue before the full immersion cleaning process.

Next, place your circuit board into a plastic container with some methylated spirits (or "metho").

The plastic container can be a lunch box, a food container or an empty ice cream container. Choose the size of the container depending on how big your circuit boards are and how many you want to put in to wash or soak at one time.

Ensure that there is enough metho in the container to fully immerse the board, including the components.

Then simply brush around the edge of the chip where the flux residue is. Continue to brush around until it looks like most of the flux residue has come off.

Take the board out of the metho to get an idea of how you are going.

Blow off the metho with compressed air (a nozzle, moisture separator, air hose and air compressor). The compressed air also helps to dislodge the residue, especially some of the residue sitting behind the chip legs.

At this stage you will be able to see how much of the flux residue is left on the board. Put the board back into the metho and do some more brushing.

Take the board out again and blow off the metho and residue with the compressed air. Again, you will be able to see how much residue is left. The residue will look like a think sticky film. Put the board back in and give it another go.

Keep going until you are satisfied that you have removed as much of the flux residue as possible. You don't have to worry is there is a little bit of flux residue left on the board because the gel flux used is "no-clean" type, which is inert and non-corrosive.

That completes this article. We covered how to clean gel flux residue from a circuit board, including "dry brushing", full immersion cleaning, using compressed air to blow off solvent and dislodge residue, and inspection.

There are many low cost tools and techniques for soldering small batches of printed circuit boards or one-off prototypes. Some of these techniques are well known while others have been invented and reinvented by small tech companies and advanced hobbyists. A few good tips can be worth their weight in gold (not just their weight in solder). Discover the tips that can save you days of soldering time or thousands of dollars in outsourcing costs. Anthony's site has many videos that reveal exactly these kinds of valuable soldering tips. Go to http://SuperSolderingSecrets.com

Combinational Circuit Design

2008-10-30T00:16:00.000-07:00

Combinational Circuit Design

1. From the specifications of the circuit, determine the required number of inputs and outputs, and assign a letter symbol to each.

2. Derive the truth table that defines the required relation ship between inputs and outputs.

3. Obtain the simplified Boolean functions of each outputs as function of the input variables.

4. Draw the logic diagram.

5. Verify the correctness of the design.

I am a freelance content writer and currently attached with http://www.articles-heaven.com/ I am running http://www.superdiscountshop.com/ and http://www.pakreseller.com/

Sequential Circuit Design

2008-10-20T05:29:00.000-07:00

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Muhammad_Wasiq_Ansari

Reverse-Engineering Your Future

2008-10-14T00:07:00.000-07:00

Reverse engineering is essentially the opposite process. You start out with the finished product and go backwards, retracing the creative method to find out how it works.

1) The Magic Pill Scenario

I’m not sure where this method originates, though I often use it with coaching clients to get past a problem.

It involves a simple question and some imagination.

The question is this:

"If I were to give you a magic pill that meant you would wake up tomorrow with the problem completely solved, what would have changed?"

This enables them to start thinking about the problem as solvable. This also presupposes that there is a solution and that it’s possible for them to get past their current obstacle.

They are then free to discover for themselves what changes they need to make. All we have to do after that is agree on how to make those changes, set up resources and a timeframe.

Then they are completely free to move into action, knowing they are going in the right direction in an acceptable timeframe.

2) Timeline method

First, assume that at some point in time, you will reach your goal.

Then move forward along that timeline until you get to a point in your future where the goal is accomplished.

At this point, check that it happens in a way that you’re happy with. If it’s not okay, change it until you’re completely happy with it.

Now turn around and look back along the timeline, noticing all of the events that took place before your goal - those actions which allowed you to accomplish your goal.

Be aware of what you did each step of the way. Your mind will fill in the details as you go.

Now you know how you will get there and have a complete plan.

To make this even better, look at your new plan. Are there any distractions or unnecessary steps involved? Use your awareness of this to streamline the plan further until it is at its best.

Write down the plan and move in to action!

(For more about this method, refer to my NLP Primer on timelines)

3) The Chunkwise Method

I’ve detailed the full process below, using "creating a new ebook" as an example.

1 - Identify your goal
Example: creating a new ebook

2 - What are the major pieces needed or stages involved? (3-5 pieces)
Example: Research, Design, Writing the detailed text.

3 - what are the major pieces of each of those?
Example: Research - (Market research, Topic research)

4 - Apply three power questions to each piece :
Example: Topic research segment

A - How do you accomplish this piece?
Search internet, read relevant books, conduct studies in real world
B - How long will it take?
3 months
C - What order does this come in the bigger scheme?
After market research and before the design phase

As a consequence of using the metaphor of reverse engineering, several strengths are revealed.

You need to envision the outcome fully before you start, so you can adjust it and decide if you really want it that way. Needless to say, this saves a lot of time and effort.

Also bear in mind that none of these processes need to take very long - it’s all about finding a clear and acceptable path to your goal.

I hope these strategies are helpful in allowing you to decide on the great things you want in your future - and making them happen!

Visit Phil's website http://www.resourcefulchange.co.uk for further articles.

Learn NLP with Phil at http://www.bronze-dragon.com/index.shtml

What Is Reverse-Engineering

2008-07-23T01:22:00.000-07:00

Reverse-engineering is a term that is used for the process of taking apart something to figure out how to use it, basically. In many cases, something new and great has come about. In order to understand how it works or to recreate it, engineers will pull it apart and study it. Understanding how it works is one thing. But in order to recreate it, they will have to make it different somehow. This can be challenging but is often necessary. Reverse-engineering is quite a fantastic, but worrisome way to learn new things.

The task that is difficult in reverse-engineering is the task of making what is in such a way that it will no longer be the same. The fear that is involved has to do with the fact that patent information can be quite sensitive. Copying a product that is under a patent is highly illegal. But, if they can figure out how to use it and make it in a different method, it may fall into the gray area. What is important to remember, though, is that the patent is on the functionality of a product, not necessary on the way it is designed.

Reverse-engineering is something that has happened the most often by the military. In this case, the reverse-engineering will be used to copy other nation’s technology when it comes to military endeavors. In many cases, the information is obtained by intelligence operations. Reverse-engineering was most commonly used in the Cold War and World War II.

You will find that reverse engineering also happens as a result of curiosity; seeing if they can do it, so to speak. It is also used as a means of cracking the code of security measures and finding a way to get around the security restrictions that can be found in such things as software and electronics. It is quite possibly quite illegal to do these things though and this needs to be taken into consideration.

for more information please see http://www.reverse-engineering-shack.co.uk

What Is Reverse-Engineering

2008-07-04T23:40:00.000-07:00

for more information please see http://www.reverse-engineering-shack.co.uk

PCA-Rx: The Safest Mode Of Detoxification

2008-06-30T22:46:00.000-07:00

All of us desire a healthy living. Health is one of man’s most prized possession on earth. But various external factors such as environment, medical treatments etc. pose a grave threat to our fitness. For instance our body garners countless toxic elements via the polluted air we breathe,water we drink and foods we eat. Dental cures often lead to excess deposits of mercury and other metals in the mouth. These compounds that accumulated remain passive initially but gradually they definitely impair our immune system and health. One prudent way to safeguard our body from these toxic elements is to remove them with the aid of a detoxifying agent.

In the past few years many therapies have been advanced in this area. Unfortunately they produce harmful side effects. However research on the part of scientists and medical researchers have blessed us with an excellent detoxifying agent PCA-Rx. PCA-Rx has minimal or even no side effects in most cases. PCA-Rx is a globally recognized natural product that is known for completely purging our body of the Heavy Metals, Toxins, Triclosimines, PPCB’s, Pesticide Residues, Yeast Forms, Parasites, Viral Residues, Mycoplasms, Vaccination Residues and the like from everywhere and anywhere they reside.

For instance PCA-Rx spray also penetrates through and cleanses the hair like thin capillaries and veins associated to our brain while their function of transporting oxygen, blood and other essential nutrients is impeded by the deposition of plaque, toxic metal residues etc. Along with it PCA-Rx contributes greatly to sound functioning of our liver. In fact it is the source of great relief to people suffering from liver related problems.PCA-Rx is a natural and living part of our body. PCA-Rx is not like other chelation treatments such as DMSA and DMPS drugs etc. These cures fail to distinguish between the requisite sediments (calcium, zinc, mercury etc.) and the non-requisite ones (toxins and other harmful residues) and remove both from our body. This wrecks our immune system and debilitates our body. Whereas PCA-Rx is quite decisive, it attacks and removes only the uninvited injurious elements from the body by the medium of stool, urine, skin and breath. This uniqueness of PCA-Rx is because of the manner in which it works. When PCA-Rx takes away a toxin from the receptor to be thrown out of the body it simultaneously supplies another molecule in its place. Due to this no other toxin gets associated to the receptor till the healing process is complete.

Moreover PCA-Rx envelops the toxin completely, ensuring its sure and safe removal. Since PCA-Rx comes with insignificant side effects even children can enjoy its benefits at ease. However, it is advised to commence PCA-Rx with fewer doses in the beginning that can very well be increased later So friends guarantee a healthy living for yourself and your family through PCA-Rx. and further information look up www.pca-rx.info

Mathew Avrahmi

PCA-Rx: The Answer To Bodily Toxicity

2008-06-24T22:39:00.000-07:00

PCA-Rx is an advanced living answer to the toxicity in our body. Unsuspectingly most of the inhabitants of our planet go all the way through their lives unwillingly accumulating a wide selection of metals and toxins as well as many other sources of contamination in their system. Daily conditions such as the air we inhale and food that we consume, the vaccinations for the many ailments around, the drugs that our doctors prescribe to help us feel better as well as our homes all contribute to the extent of toxic exposure we face on a day to day basis and will ultimately become ill through. A quantity of the injurious contaminants that can noiselessly accrue within our body comprises of heavy metals, some of which are lead, mercury and aluminum, potentially deadly chemicals, vaccination residue, plaque, pesticide miscellany as well as many others.

All of these collect within the blood cells and lymphatic fluid as well as the cerebral and spinal fluid. PCA-Rx efficiently, naturally and soothingly helps to eradicate the above mentioned contaminants in addition to any other contaminants which do not form a innate element of those three primary bodily pathways. PCA-Rx has also been found to have a astoundingly positive effect on the symptoms connected with environmental illnesses and further circumstances where toxic exposure is suspected.

PCA-Rx is the outcome of many years of meticulous study and development. It is a living bacterial organism inside a bottle. This is a powerful, but harmless alternative to established chelation healing that uses the distinctive concept of clathration to purify the body of the unwanted and potentially hazardous toxicity. While chelation is typically achieved using drugs and chemicals, PCA-Rx is a living formulation that is in reality composed of helpful bacteria and additional microbes that, when utilized, become an accepted, living element of the body's immune system. PCA-Rx is the most efficient nutritional support product available as a physiological toxin remover and cleanser.

PCA-Rx is a living organism. It is a potent means of detoxification that successfully removes heavy metals and toxins as well as any additional detrimental contaminants from the body . PCA-Rx is an alive, biologically-active formula which contains numerous beneficial microorganisms that safely and efficiently purify the systems of people who have to endure the effects of heavy metal toxicity in addition to the continuing buildup of prescription drug leftovers, infectious proteins, vaccination residue, chemicals, pesticide components, vascular plaque, mycoplasmas, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and many other physical pollutants. While doing this it does not eliminate any beneficial minerals from within the body's structure. PCA-Rx would be very valuable for anyone living or working in areas or industries where mercury, lead and any further toxic metal exposure exist, as well as being advantageous for people who have mercury amalgam dental fillings or the people whose bodies have reached toxic saturation point for other reasons.

Health care professionals have for many years, been utilizing a variety of substances inside the realm of chelation therapy in an endeavor to successfully purify their patients' bodies of selected toxins and heavy metals; their hard work have been met with some degree of success, but also measurable side effects. After many years of widespread research into the functioning of the human body and its immune system, PCA-Rx has now been established as one of the most potent and effectual chelating substances discovered to the present date. Its exclusive deployment of clathration as its approach to heavy metal and toxin removal will transform this structure of chelation therapy eternally.

PCA-Rx's main specified uses are:
• Removing heavy metals - including mercury
• Attaching to and removing many hurtful toxins +
• Removing cardio and cerebral vascular plaque
• Helping to rid the of body of harmful mycoplasmas
• Helping lower elevated enzyme counts
• Helping those suffering from environmental sickness
• Providing a less invasive form of chelation
• Detoxify through normal bodily functions

All information on PCA-Rx has been researched and written by Juliette Pickup

PCA-Rx, Medicardium, and Wobenzym

What Are Gerber Files For Printed Circuit Boards-And Who Needs Them?

2008-06-19T00:03:00.000-07:00

When an electronics design engineer has completed their circuit design for an application, the next step towards completing the product design is to enter the schematic details into a computer based schematic capture program. The schematic capture program, which is usually part of an Electronic Design Automation, EDA or Computer Automated Design, PCB CAD, software design package, will create a net list from the completed schematic that details every electrical connection between each electronic component.

This net list is used by the printed circuit board or PCB designer in the process of designing the printed circuit board with the EDA or PCB CAD software. The finished printed circuit board will provide the physical assembly and interconnection platform for the various electronic components required by the schematic.

The printed circuit board is made up of one or more conductive layers of copper plating that is etched to form the component pads and interconnection traces and one or more layers of insulating material such as epoxy-filled fiberglass to separate the conductive copper layers and to provide the mechanical strength for the board.

A single layer board would have components on the top side of the board and connecting traces on the bottom side of the board. A double layer board could have components on the top side only or have components on both the top and bottom sides of the board along with connecting traces on both sides of the board. A multilayer board would have both top and bottom sides with components and traces along with a number of internal layers used for interconnections and for voltage and ground plane layers.

The EDA or PCB CAD program provides the detailed information about the completed board design in a series of data files for each conductive layer, such as top, bottom, and any internal layers. The Gerber File format, named after the Gerber Scientific Instruments Company, a pioneer in photoplotter manufacturing, is the standard format for these data files.

The original Gerber format conformed to the EIA RS-274D standard and consisted of a command file for each conductive layer and a tool description file. The command file consisted of a series of short commands, each followed by a set of X and Y coordinates, which would provide a photoplotter with the information to create a graphic representation. These command files became known as the Gerber files. The tool description file, or aperture file, defined the trace line widths and dimensional data for all of the pads and geometric shapes on the layer.

These data files of computer generated information for the printed circuit board design are then sent to a printed circuit board fabrication company to have the physical boards manufactured. The Gerber files contain all of the information necessary for the computer controlled machines at the printed circuit board, PCB, fabrication houses to etch the copper layers to create the component pads and connection traces, drill all required holes, and cut the board to the required size.

Since a PCB may have from one to many conductive layers, the older Gerber format EIA RS-274D always assumed a set of command files, one for each PCB layer, and one tool description file, or aperture file. A standard for the aperture files was never established so every EDA or PCB CAD software product had its own version of the aperture file format. If the printed circuit board fabrication house could not read the aperture file format as sent, then the aperture information would have to be re-entered manually.

The newer Gerber format conforms to EIA RS-274X and this format includes the aperture information in the file headers as embedded information for each command or Gerber file. This newer format is often called X-Gerber. With all of the aperture information included within the header fo the file, each X-Gerber file provides all of the information required to fabricate the related portion of a PCB layer.

The file names for the Gerber files should be descriptive enough for the pcb fabricator to understand which board and board layer that each file applies to,such as membdtop.gbr as a file name. The standard process is to include with each set of files for a board design a special readme.txt type text file that defines each file name and its application for the board design. The board vendor will use this readme.txt text file as the starting point for the board manufacturing process.

Gerber file extensions are often .GBR, .GBX, or .ART. Sometimes extensions such as .TOP and .BOT or .SMT and .SMB are used instead of the .GB_ type extensions. Often the file extension for a type of file, top, bottom, silkscreen, paste, inner layer, is controlled by the EDA or PCB CAD software package or is selectable within the package. This variation in the extensions makes the inclusion of the readme.txt file as a requirement in the overall file package for the board vendor.

The list of files for a board design will include the silkscreen for the top and sometimes the bottom layers if components are mounted on both sides, component placements for the top and sometimes the bottom layers, solder screen paste files for surface mount applications, drill drawings, solder mask files, panel drawings, pad master top and pad master bottom, etc.

For instance, for a double sided, 2 layer, pcb, the Gerber files will consist of two positive Gerber layers, top and bottom, aperture file,if not in the RS-274X format, NC Excellon drill file, Drill Tool List file, Silkscreen file for each side with components, solder mask files for top and bottom, and top and bottom screen paste files for surface mount boards where applicable. A four layer board would have all of these files plus two inner layer files and a six layer board would have all of these files plus four inner layer files.

At Innovative Circuits Inc., we interface with PCB fabrication houses for our own board designs as well as board designs provided by our customers for whom we are providing board assembly services. Thus we are very familiar with Gerber files and their purposes and functions. But we also realize that countless other people in other organizations who are involved in ordering raw boards or board assembly services will see or hear the term Gerber files without having any knowledge of the term, and this article if for them.

Jim Usery
Sales and Marketing Director
Innovative Circuits Inc.
311A S Parkway St
Corinth, MS 38834
office 662-287-2007
toll free 866-887-7381
fax 662-665-9275
email jusery@icimfg.com Website http://www.icimfg.com

Visit our website at http://www.icimfg.com for more information about Innovative Circuits Inc. and the services and expertise that we provide to our customers, or for additional technical articles. You can also sign up for our free Ezine, PCB Information, at the bottom of the Home Page at http://www.icimfg.com

Basics of Manufacturing Printed Circuit Boards

2008-06-09T04:47:00.000-07:00

In electronics, printed circuit boards, or PCBs, are used to mechanically support electronic components which have their connection leads soldered onto copper pads in surface mount applications or through rilled holes in the board and copper pads for soldering the component leads in thru-hole applications. A board design may have all thru-hole components on the top or component side, a mix of thru-hole and surface mount on the top side only, a mix of thru-hole and surface mount components on the top side and surface mount components on the bottom or circuit side, or surface mount components on the top and bottom sides of the board.

The boards are also used to electrically connect the required leads for each component using conductive copper traces. The component pads and connection traces are etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Printed circuit boards are designed as single sided with copper pads and traces on one side of the board only, double sided with copper pads and traces on the top and bottom sides of the board, or multilayer designs with copper pads and traces on top and bottom of board with a variable number of internal copper layers with traces and connections.

Single or double sided boards consist of a core dielectric material, such as FR-4 epoxy fiberglass, with copper plating on one or both sides. This copper plating is etched away to form the actual copper pads and connection traces on the board surfaces as part of the board manufacturing process. A multilayer board consists of a number of layers of dielectric material that has been impregnated with adhesives, and these layers are used to separate the layers of copper plating. All of these layers are aligned and then bonded into a single board structure under heat and pressure. Multilayer boards with 48 or more layers can be produced with today's technologies.

In a typical four layer board design, the internal layers are often used to provide power and ground connections, such as a +5V plane layer and a Ground plane layer as the two internal layers, with all other circuit and component connections made on the top and bottom layers of the board. Very complex board designs may have a large number of layers to make the various connections for different voltage levels, ground connections, or for connecting the many leads on ball grid array devices and other large integrated circuit package formats.

There are usually two types of material used to construct a multilayer board. Pre-preg material is thin layers of fiberglass pre-impregnated with an adhesive, and is in sheet form, usually about .002 inches thick. Core material is similar to a very thin double sided board in that it has a dielectric material, such as epoxy fiberglass, with a copper layer deposited on each side, usually .030 thickness dielectric material with 1 ounce copper layer on each side. In a multilayer board design, there are two methods used to build up the desired number of layers. The core stack-up method, which is an older technology, uses a center layer of pre-preg material with a layer of core material above and another layer of core material below. This combination of one pre-preg layer and two core layers would make a 4 layer board.

The film stack-up method, a newer technology, would have core material as the center layer followed by layers of pre-preg and copper material built up above and below to form the final number of layers required by the board design, sort of like Dagwood building a sandwich. This method allows the manufacturer flexibility in how the board layer thicknesses are combined to meet the finished product thickness requirements by varying the number of sheets of pre-preg in each layer. Once the material layers are completed, the entire stack is subjected to heat and pressure that causes the adhesive in the pre-preg to bond the core and pre-preg layers together into a single entity.

The process of manufacturing printed circuit boards follows the steps below for most applications:

Basic Steps for Manufacturing Printed Circuit Boards:

1. Setup - the process of determining materials, processes, and requirements to meet the customer's specifications for the board design based on the Gerber file information provided with the purchase order.

2. Imaging - the process of transferring the Gerber file data for a layer onto an etch resist film that is placed on the conductive copper layer.

3. Etching - the traditional process of exposing the copper and other areas unprotected by the etch resist film to a chemical that removes the unprotected copper, leaving the protected copper pads and traces in place; newer processes use plasma/laser etching instead of chemicals to remove the copper material, allowing finer line definitions.

4. Multilayer Pressing - the process of aligning the conductive copper and insulating dielectric layers and pressing them under heat to activate the adhesive in the dielectric layers to form a solid board material.

5. Drilling - the process of drilling all of the holes for plated through applications; a second drilling process is used for holes that are not to be plated through. Information on hole location and size is contained in the drill drawing file.

6. Plating - the process of applying copper plating to the pads, traces, and drilled through holes that are to be plated through; boards are placed in an electrically charged bath of copper.

7. Second Drilling - this is required when holes are to be drilled through a copper area but the hole is not to be plated through. Avoid this process if possible because it adds cost to the finished board.

8. Masking - the process of applying a protective masking material, a solder mask, over the bare copper traces or over the copper that has had a thin layer of solder applied; the solder mask protects against environmental damage, provides insulation, protects against solder shorts, and protects traces that run between pads.

9. Finishing - the process of coating the pad areas with a thin layer of solder to prepare the board for the eventual wave soldering or reflow soldering process that will occur at a later date after the components have been placed.

10. Silk Screening - the process of applying the markings for component designations and component outlines to the board. May be applied to just the top side or to both sides if components are mounted on both top and bottom sides.

11. Routing - the process of separating multiple boards from a panel of identical boards; this process also allows cutting notches or slots into the board if required.

12. Quality Control - a visual inspection of the boards; also can be the process of inspecting wall quality for plated through holes in multilayer boards by cross-sectioning or other methods.

13. Electrical Testing - the process of checking for continuity or shorted connections on the boards by means applying a voltage between various points on the board and determining if a current flow occurs. Depending upon the board complexity, this process may require a specially designed test fixture and test program to integrate with the electrical test system used by the board manufacturer.

At Innovative Circuits Inc., we assemble a variety of surface mount and thru-hole boards each day for our customers. We also provide printed circuit board layout design services along with conversions from thru-hole designs to surface mount designs for our customers. We do not manufacture bare printed circuit boards ourselves but we do work with a number of board houses to produce the bare boards that we use every day to assemble our customers' products. As a result, we have become very familiar with the board manufacturing processes and we wanted to share our knowledge with others who may not have our level of exposure to printed circuit boards.

You Owe Your PC to a Circuit Board Screwed onto a Piece of Plywood

2008-05-30T23:40:00.000-07:00

It all Started with a simple integrated circuit board screwed onto a piece of plywood.

You owe your laptop or PC to a kit for flashing lights.

How was it that in our time the Personal Computer (P.C) and the laptop computer came about to be?

It all started with the invention of the transistor in 1949 by Bell Labs – the research arm of the “phone company”. . The transistor was nothing more than a solid state electronic switch. The transistor or integrated circuit replaced the much larger vacuum tubes of the day. Vacuum tubes were large, hot and unreliable. Transistors performed essentially the same functions as tubes but were smaller , lighter , cooler and more reliable All said and done they were better ,smaller and more efficient than the vacuum tubes they replaced. . And transistors did not “burn out” like a vacuum tube.

Transistors allowed a trend of miniaturization that has led all the way to our present portable small laptop / notebook computers which can run on batteries. It is hard to visualize for us today that computers used to house large office buildings themselves – along with maintenance backup support staff and even their own air conditioners to remove the great amounts of heat the early, primitive computers produced.

In 1959 engineers at Texas Instruments figured out how to put more than one transistor on the same base and connect these transistors without wires. Thus the next step was born – the integrated circuit. The first integrated circuit consisted of only six transistors. Current computers have in the range of 100 million transistor equivalents.

In 1969 Intel introduced the 1 k memory chip. This was much larger than anything else produced at the time. Through coordination of Intel with a Japanese calculator manufacturer named Busicomp the next step was made where a generic multipurpose chip was devised. What made this step important was that no one chip could do a number of tasks. Previously each chip had a purpose that was burnt in. Now one integrated chip could do a number of different functions. One single integrated circuit chip was almost an entire computing device. The successor to this multi purpose integrated circuit or “CPU” was what went on to the basis of our whole generation and concept of personal computers/

In 1973 some of these microcomputer kits based on the initial 8080 Intel integrated chip were developed. In the hands of hobbyists these kits were put together and were nothing more than blinking lights. However the impetus was on. Many of these early hobbyists went on to become computer industry giants. With Intel introducing an even much more powerful microprocessor chip the computer industry was on its way.

A company MITS introduced the “Altair Computer Kit”. The Altair was the impetus for fledgling software companies, such as Microsoft and Lotus, to write software programs for these early computers. Among the early innovators and producers of software in this field was Microsoft with its first version of Microsoft “Basic”.

Along came the computer industry leader and stodgy monolith IBM to introduce the first “personal computer” in 1975. The model 1500 was beyond piddly compared to today’s dollar store calculators and cost only $ 9,000.

Next came a smaller “upstart “Computer Company which came to be called Apple Computer. Apple computer introduced the Apple I computer in 1976 for the princely sum $ 695. Believe it or not original “Apple 1 computer” consisted of a main circuit board screwed into a piece of plywood. Talk about IBM having to hold its laughter The Apple I appeared to be such a home garage made amateur none professionally made product that the case and power supply were not even included. The buyer of the Apple I had to scrounge or source this himself. IBM thought the Apple I was nothing more than a foolish fad. A minor inconvenience that would soon go away and disappear. Yet department heads started buying these simple computers for uses in business departments. This was in spite of serious advice from IBM experts to corporations about the perils and shortcomings of these toy computers and outright threats by IBM salespeople to IT staff and heads.

The Apple I was followed in 1977 by the Apple II. The Apple II because of its enormous success set the standards for nearly all the important microcomputers to follow, including the IBM PC.

The very core of the early computer world – IBM “International Business Machines” – the master of the profitable mainframe computer industry had been awoken from its deep profitable slumber by a small upstart computer maker with a simple computer system that began its product cycle as an integrated circuit board screwed onto a piece of plywood.

Max Rubin
Retro Vintage Computer Manuals
vintagecomputermanuals@yahoo.com
http://www.badgerlinux.net
http://www.vintagecomputermanual.com

Some Pointers To Better Printed Circuit Board Layout

2008-05-28T05:05:00.000-07:00

PCB (printed circuit board) layout
This is a topic that has grown closer to my heart over the decades that I have been designing and laying out printed circuit boards. The issue came up because a company I was doing contract work for has been outsourcing their layout work with the result that the final product left much to be desired. Electrically all the correct points were joined up but mechanically, aesthetically, technically it was a disaster. There was a gaping void between knowing the functionality of a particular design and routing accordingly and this particular design where the the individual that routed the pcb clearly had no idea about either the functionality or the final operation of the design.
There are many elements to laying out a printed circuit.

* Make sure you have the correct pcb size according to the chosen enclosure. This may have to take into account that there might be a number of different boards that have to mechanically connect and electrically relate to each other.
* Make sure that all the components have been correctly specified, specially their physical sizes and pin spacing
* The input and output connectors must be correctly specified for the appropriate voltage and current.
* The positions of the i/o components relative to the enclosure must be carefully measured and placed. This includes not only the electrical i/o but also the visual components if lcd screens, 7 segments displays, LED's, pushbuttons etc are being used.
* Plan the high current paths because bad planning can lead tracks that are too narrow, too long or too close to sensitive components.
* Plan the high frequency paths taking note of proximity to ground planes and metal surfaces. Lengths of track can also be a critical factor when rf paths are being layed out.
* Plan the power supplies blocks as careless planning can lead to noisy power supplies with subsequent interference and malfunctioning of the rest of the circuit. Rather take your time now than have to redo a board several times because of hasty component placing the first time round.
* Place all the components before starting with a layout. If the components have been placed properly, laying the tracks can be quick and painless. Sometimes I do a provisional layout to see how particular paths will look but the bulk of the routing I do when all the components have been placed.
* Plan the horizontal and vertical routing paths on double sided boards carefully as this allows for the possibility of denser routing if required.

I have found that as I have grown older I have become more patient with my layouts regarding them as personal works of electronic art. A finished product needs to be a thing of beauty and not just be functionally correct. All good layouts naturally spend most of their time with the positioning of the components with the connecting up taking a lesser proportion of the time. Planning, as with anything in life, is the most important part of the layout project. One item I have not mentioned and that is the role of auto routers. I am not a great fan of auto routers and cannot recall one board in the last 20 years that I have auto routed and sent out to the pcb manufacturers without extensive tidying up and usually scrapping the entire auto route and starting again. I know there are cost implications but I have found that I rate satisfaction with a routed board much higher than speed of routing.

Marc Jarchow 46 year old entrepeneur providing MODular ElecTRONics solutions for the Professional (custom instruments for your business), Educator (can be used as a training aid), Entrepeneur (can be packaged with your logo) and Hobbyist (make your own home based products) using low cost modules to create whatever application you have in mind. All items available at www.modetron.com

New Pcb Design Software Has Been Developed By Novarm, Ltd.

2008-05-25T23:47:00.001-07:00

DipTrace is an advanced PCB design software application that comes with a PCB Layout module, a powerful auto-router, Schematic Capture and Component/Pattern editors to design your own component libraries. Besides being very simple to learn, which is quite an accomplishment for an engineering software application, the software has a very intuitive user interface and many innovative features. For instance, a schematic can be converted to a PCB with one mouse click. The board designer can instantly renew the PCB from an updated version of the schematic and keep existing placement, routed traces, board outline, mounting holes and other work. DipTrace has a high quality automatic router, superior to many routers included in other PCB layout packages. It can route a single layer (bottom side) and multilayer circuit boards, and there is an option to autoroute a single layer board with jumper wires, if required. Smart manual routing tools allow users to finalize the design and to get the results they want in a blink of an eye.

DipTrace has an accurate shape-based copper pour system with different possible fill types and thermals to make plane layer or to reduce manufacturing costs by minimizing the amount of etching solution. Another important feature is Design Rule Check (DRC) - the function that checks the clearance between design objects, minimum size of tracks and drills, which ensures board accuracy. A net connectivity check allows you to check all electrical connections and find all broken nets and their isolated areas. A feature comparing a PCB to a schematic helps detect possible design mistakes and correct them before prototyping. Output formats are DXF, Gerber, N/C Drill and G-code. DipTrace allows you import DXF files in PCB Layout and Pattern Editor. Standard libraries contain 50.000+ components.

Alex Tikhonov DipTrace Team http://www.diptrace.com

PCB Prototyping Advantage

2008-05-25T23:46:00.000-07:00

Advancement in technology and computerization paved way to convenience in mass production of PCB/s worldwide. Prototyping is a modern system used for cost effective manufacturing of PCB boards, primarily a main electronic component.

Being aggressively introduced to companies, prototyping machines are not ordinary commodity like a photocopy machine, which users can use at once with ease. PCB machines need careful study and training before it can take off for efficient use. As a modern, priced item and investment, it takes a lot of experience to judge the equipment before acquiring one.

The basics of PCB Prototyping

BENEFITS - If a business involves mass production, the first process is making master copies for checking before it can be carried over to the next step of producing millions. With PCB milling system, the tedious traditional process is lessened because of the speed of creating and testing is guaranteed.

CHEMICAL FREE - compared to chemical etching, PCB milling is cleanly done by subtractive method without involving the use of chemicals. Circuit boards are cut through to remove the copper portions. The speed in accomplishing the task is controlled by the user with great accuracy.

COMPACT - Imagine one machine handling the multiple complex tasks of milling, drilling, routing, and other special processes, where task are all done by prototyping machine to make PCB boards. The only additional item required for operating the equipment is backing it up with industrial vacuum cleaner for maintenance purposes. The compactness can be achieved in the setup process, which is also a part of training required in handling prototyping machines.

MECHANISM - PCB prototyping is a precision-controlled device that is highly mechanical in make. It involves drive systems fully manipulated by engineered assembly. Once put up, everything depends on the user and the integration of software coordinating the movement of the heads in its coordinates (x, y and z). It is computerized making repetitive process free of errors.

SAFE - designed for high sophistication with the use of small bits for routing, it has been customized for rigidity of application. However, for safety reasons, user is required to wear protection glasses for the eyes. Minute dusts emitted are required to be vacuumed off all the time.

Years of experience will be enough to efficiently use PCB prototyping machines. It made manufacturing safe, easy, productive and rewarding in general. It is best to get upgraded in technology especially with use of computerized equipments.

Low Jeremy maintains http://prototyping.articlesforreprint.com . This content is provided by Low Jeremy. It may be used only in its entirety with all links included.

PCB Prototypes

2008-05-22T23:42:00.000-07:00

A PCB is the acronym for Printed Circuit Boards, which are cards or circuit boards that are composed of a very thin flat metal or hard plastic-type board called an insulator. It is upon this that computer silicon chips and other similar electronic components are mounted. These PCBs are then used in electronic appliances like televisions, computers, washing machines, digital cameras, and so forth.

A prototype can be considered the first working model of an invention. So in this case, a PCB prototype is the first circuit board that is invented for a new electronic device. By using this PCB prototype in the electronic device, the inventor can see if the prototype serves its purpose in the invention. Once the electronic device is made to function with the PCB prototype, any mistakes that take place can be rectified in the prototype. In this way, the PCB prototype saves the inventor of the electronic appliance lots of money, as any mistakes that may be present in the PCB will be pinpointed before the actual commercial manufacture of the PCB.

Without having a PCB prototype, the model of a new invention will be of no use if its PCB is not in good condition and up to requirements. Electronic appliances are getting more and more technologically advanced by the day. This advancement is done through changes on a PCB prototype, which is then tried on the appliance to see if the advancement is in right order. Using different materials of the PCB also account for changes in the PCB prototype. You can use fiberglass, Teflon or cross-linked polystyrene for the PCB, and it is through the PCB prototype that you find out which PCB material best fits your PCB. Nowadays, new PCBs are in use in electronic appliances, thanks to the PCB prototypes.

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